Class : B.Ed lV Sem

Compiled by: Asst.prof.Rashmi Gautam 

Topic: Biosphere And Biodiversity 

बायोस्फीयर या जीवमंडल, पृथ्वी पर मौजूद सभी जीवित चीज़ों और उनके अजैविक पर्यावरण का वह भाग है जहां जीवन संभव है. यह पृथ्वी का सबसे बड़ा पारिस्थितिक तंत्र

है.

बायोस्फीयर शब्द दो शब्दों से मिलकर बना है: बायो -

जिसका मतलब है जीवन, स्फीयर जिसका मतलब है गोल आकार.

बायोस्फीयर में शामिल चीज़ें:

पृथ्वी पर मौजूद सभी जीवित चीजें, पौधे और जानवर

उन जीवों के अवशेष जो मर चुके हैं और अभी तक विघटित नहीं हुए हैं

वायुमंडल, जलमंडल, भूमंडल के वे क्षेत्र जहां जीवित जीव रहते हैं

बायोस्फीयर से जुड़ी कुछ और बातें:

बायोस्फीयर में कृत्रिम बायोस्फीयर जैसे बायोस्फीयर 2 और BIOS-3 भी शामिल हैं

संभावित रूप से अन्य ग्रहों या चंद्रमाओं पर भी बायोस्फीयर मौजूद हो सकता है

जीव-जंतुओं के पारस्परिक संबंधों और पर्यावरण के साथ संबंधों का अध्ययन जैवशास्त्र के अंतर्गत किया जाता हैहै

जैव विविधता का मतलब है, किसी पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र में मौजूद विभिन्न जीवित चीज़ों की विविधता. इसमें पौधों, जानवरों, बैक्टीरिया, कवक, और मनुष्य जैसी सभी जीवित चीजें शामिल हैं. जैव विविधता, पृथ्वी पर जीवन की विविधता को भी कहते हैं.

जैव विविधता के बारे में कुछ और बातें:

जैव विविधता में, हर प्रजाति के भीतर आनुवंशिक विविधता होती है.

जैव विविधता, विभिन्न पर्यावरणीय दबावों और विकास के तंत्रों से प्रभावित होती है.

जैव विविधता का नुकसान, मानव और ग्रह स्वास्थ्य के लिए सबसे बड़े खतरों में से एक है.

जैव विविधता, सामाजिक और मानवीय ज़रूरतों को पूरा करती है.

जैव विविधता, हमें आर्थिक अवसर और अवकाश गतिविधियाँ भी प्रदान करती है.

जैव विविधता की रक्षा हमें जलवायु परिवर्तन से बचाती है.

जैव विविधता के कुछ उदाहरणः

अमेज़न वर्षावन, दुनिया के सबसे समृद्ध जैव विविधता वाले हॉटस्पॉट में से एक है.

भारत, पौधों की प्रजातियों की समृद्धि के मामले में 9वें स्थान पर है.

भारत की जीव-जंतु संपदा भी काफी विविधतापूर्ण है.

जीवमंडल (Biosphere) पृथ्वी पर सभी जीवित जीवों और उनके आवासों का कुल योग है, जबकि जैव विविधता (Biodiversity) पृथ्वी पर जीवन की विभिन्नता है, जो विभिन्न प्रजातियों, पारिस्थितिक तंत्र और आनुवंशिक स्तर पर होती है.

जीवमंडल (Biosphere):

परिभाषाः

यह पृथ्वी का वह हिस्सा है जहाँ जीवन पाया जाता है, जिसमें वायुमंडल, जलमंडल और स्थलमंडल शामिल हैं.

जैव विविधता (Biodiversity):

परिभाषाः

पृथ्वी पर जीवन की विभिन्नता, जो विभिन्न प्रजातियों, पारिस्थितिक तंत्र और आनुवंशिक स्तर पर होती है.

अर्थः

यह पृथ्वी पर जीवन के विभिन्न रूपों की विविधता को दर्शाता है, जिसमें आनुवंशिक विविधता, प्रजातियों की विविधता और पारिस्थितिक तंत्र की विविधता शामिल है.

उदाहरणः

एक ही प्रजाति के विभिन्न जीवों में जीनों के क्रम की भिन्नता, विभिन्न प्रकार के पौधे और जानवर, और विभिन्न प्रकार पारिस्थितिक तंत्र.

अर्थः

यह पृथ्वी पर सभी पारिस्थितिक तंत्रों का एक साथ योग है, जिसमें जीवित जीव और उनके वातावरण एक समग्र प्रणाली के रूप में परस्पर क्रिया करते हैं.

उदाहरणः

समुद्र की सबसे गहरी खाइयों से लेकर सबसे ऊंचे पहाड़ों और निचले वायुमंडल तक, जहाँ जीवन पाया जाता है.

Sent from vivo smartphone

Name : Asst.prof.Rashmi Gautam

Class :B.Ed 2nd Sem

Topic : meaning of language , characteristics of language , Importantance of language 

MEANING OF LANGUAGE 

Man is a social being and he wants to interact with his fellow beings. This inter-action process involves language as a vital means. Language is a way of communication and social control. Language and human life are inter-related with each other. All human beings makes use of it since birth to death. It helps in the process of development. The scope of language is very wide and pervasive. It occupies an important place in academic arena. Hence, it is important to know about the learning strategies of language.

Meaning and Concept of Language:

 The term 'language' has been derived from the Latin word, 'lingua' which implies tongue. Language is the whole process of phenomena associated with human vocal and auditory communication of emotions and ideas. Language is both verbal and non-verbal. Verbal language is used in the expression of ideas and thoughts and non-verbal language is used in the form of body actions, or facial expressions. Broadly speaking, language is the sum total of verbal and non-verbal expressions of an individual, related to the communication process.

Language is a social phenomena. The evolution of language finds its root from the very existence of human being in the society. The use of language is as old as human civilization. There are several languages all over the world such as Bengali, Punjabi, Oriya, En-glish, French etc. It is a tool of communication and interaction. It is a means, not an end itself.

The accuracy of language depends on the knowledge of grammar and correct pronunciation, correct spelling, correct reading and correct listening. Language is consisted of words creating a meaningful sound phonemes and morphemes are two important aspect of any verbal language.

Language: In order to know the meaning of language, it is essential to study the definitions of language. Encyclopedia, Britanica defines language, 'as an arbitrary system of vocal symbols by means of which human being, as member of a social group, and partici-pants, in culture, interact and communicate.'

1. O. Jesperson defined language as a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to thoughts and feelings.'

2. Plato said, 'Ideas and feelings are the realizations but when these are revealed, through mouth it is known as language.'

3. Bholanath Tiwari defines language as, "language involves the pronouncing organs which is used by a person according to his own, for expressing his ideas and feelings to others."

4. Allen writes, "language is a means of a communicating thoughts."

5. Block and Trager defines, "A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group operates and interacts." Hence, after examining various defi-nitions of language, it is said that language is a means of communication which involves a complex action of verbal and non-verbal expressions and the main purpose of the use of language is to interact and communicate ideas, feelings and experiences to others.

Nature and Characteristics of Language:

 Again to know about the meaning of language, it is a need to understand the nature of language. But explaining the nature of language is a difficult task. The following points give a clue to understand the nature of a language:

(i) Language is a system: Language is a system of complex whole just like human body. In the entire process of body functions, different organs such as eye, ear, tongue, heart, brain and lungs etc., are inter connected and work in coordination. Similarly, language is a system which involves the functions of words, structures and sounds in an integrated way.

(ii) Language is learnt: Language is not an automatic outcome to an individual. It is learnt through one's habit. Language is learnt through imitation and practice. From the very beginning of life, a child does not speak, write or understand language but gradually, he learns it from his fellow beings who train him to use language and then, it becomes a habit for the child to use it in speaking, writing, listening and understanding. Gradually, in a system-

atic way, a child learns the sounds, words, sentences and the grammatical usage of language. (iii) Language is a social artifact: Language finds its root in the society and culture. Language is divine gift to a human being, who has cultured it from his social life. It has developed from the interaction of human beings in the society language has enriched the man and his societal life. Various social endeavours in the form of ethics and values have been

preserved through literatures the expression of language. So language is a social artifact. (iv) Language is evolutionary: Language is evolutionary in nature. It has developed from the origin of the human civilization and still it is in the process of evolution. Different sounds, words, sentences, structures etc. are coming out day after day. Human speeches and dialects have been modified into the form of language in the due course of time. Man is trying to find out different innovative usage of language.

(v) Language is a dynamic phenomenon: Language is a dynamic but not a static phenomenon. Language is in the continuous process of change, equal to the social change, language also changes. Primitive man's language has been improved to modern language with the impact of culture and science technocratic world has brought a great change in the use of language.

(vi) Language is climatically influenced: It is said that language is a speech. The climatic condition of a particular, society or nation that has its bearing on the speech of its inhabitants. That is why we notice the different style of speech or pronunciation or sounds used by American or British people, which is different from Indians.

(vii) Language is a cultural product: Every language is the product of a particular society or culture. It has a meaning only in relation to a culture and society. So different language are found in different societies. That is why, there is no similar equal words in any two language.

(viii) Language is a means not an end: Language is a means but not an end itself. It is a means of communication. Man shares his ideas, feelings, thoughts with his fellow beings by the means of language either in the form of verbal and non-verbal actions. All the litera-tures are the expressions of language in its different forms. Language accelerates the process of interaction and communication. So language is not an end, but a means.

(ix) Language is a science: Language is a science. It is built up by different wings. The mechanism of language depends on the systematic coordination of sounds, alphabets, words and structures. Scientific organization of sounds, words and structures breed a lan-guage. Just like a building is built up with raw materials organized in a scientific manner, so also language needs the proper organization of alphabets, words, structures and grammar. For full functioning of any language, it requires four basic skills like speaking, reading, writing and listening.

(x) Language is psycho operated: Language is the systematic expression of alpha-bets, words and structures. This systematic expression process is operated through one's psychology. While speaking, writing or listening, someone has to apply his psycho process, such as, intelligence, feelings, motive, thinking, emotions etc. Without the application of psycho process, language can't expressed properly and meaningfully.

Importance of language:

 Man is a social being. He has to live in the society and this tendency compels him to share his ideas, feelings and thoughts with others. He is to commu-nicate and interact with his fellow beings to fulfil his needs and demands. This communica-tion and interaction become possible through the use of language. Hence, language has a manifold importance in human life.

(i) Language for survival: Social nature of man binds him to lead him in the society. No man is independent fully. He depends on his fellow beings for his existence and fulfilment of needs and desires. Survival of human beings depend on his capacity, ability to communi-cate and interact with others in the society. So he exchanges his ideas, feelings and thoughts to others for the sake of his survival in the society. (ii) Language for communication and interaction: Transmission and communica-

tion of informations from one to another can't be possible without to use of language whether it is verbal or non-verbal two individuals can't interact with each other, without the use of language. Language enriches and helps in communication and interaction process.

(iii) Language for literature: All the literary works require verbal language. Litera-ture is an art which is shaped through language. There is no question of any literature, with-out the use of language.

(iv) Language for learning: Human being is a learning being who continuously learns to adjust in the environment where he lives. Through imitation process or through habit formation process, he tries to learn and adjust to his problems and environment. His learning becomes effective and accelerated only through language.

(v) Language for preservation: Language plays a vital role in presenting our culture in the form of written history and literature. Language is a solid means through which present experiences can be stored for the oncoming generations. Though the medias and electronic devices help in the preservation of ideas and knowledge, they necessarily use some form of langauge in it.

Class: B.Ed. II Sem

Subject: Pedagogy of Mathematics     Topic: Nature of mathematics

Compiled By: Dr. Jyoti Gangrade

Nature of Mathematics: The nature of Mathematics can be made explicit by analyzing the chief characteristics of Mathematics. (i) Mathematics is a science of Discovery: E.E.Biggs states that, "Mathematics is the discovery of relationships and the expression of those relationships in symbolic form – in words, in numbers, in letters, by diagrams (or) by graphs."

Problem solving – a sort of healthy mental exercise. (iii)Mathematics deals with the art of drawing conclusions: One of the important functions of the school is to familiarize children with a mode of thought which helps them in drawing right conclusions and inferences. According to Benjamin Pierce, "Mathematic is the science that draws necessary conclusions." In Mathematics, the conclusions are certain and definite. Hence, the learner can check whether (or) not he has drawn the correct conclusions, permit the learner to begin with simple and very easy conclusions, and gradually move over to more difficult and complex ones.

Mathematics is a tool subject: Mathematics has its integrity, its beauty, its structure and many other features that relate to Mathematics as an end in it. However, many conceive Mathematics as a very useful means to other ends, a powerful and incisive tool of wide applicability. In the article "Mathematics & the Teaching Sciences", John. J. Bowem pointed out that, "Not all students are captivated by the internal consistency of Mathematics and for everyone who makes it a career; there will be dozens to whom it is only an elegant tool." As Howard. J. Fehr says, "If Mathematics had not been useful, it would long ago have disappeared from our school curriculum as required study."

Mathematics involves an intuitive method: The first step in the learning of any mathematical subject is the development of intuition. This must come before rules are stated (or) formal operations are introduced. The teacher has to foster intuition in our young children, by following the right strategies of teaching. Intuition when applied to Mathematics involves the concretization of an idea not get started in the form of some sort of operations (or) examples. Intuition is to anticipate what will happen next and what to do about it. It implies the act of grasping the meaning (or) significance (or) structure of a problem without explicit reliance on the analytic mode of thought. It is a form of mathematical activity which depends on the confidence in the applicability of the process rather than upon the importance of right answers all the time. It is up to the teacher to allow the child to use his natural and intuition way of thinking, by encouraging him to do so and honoring him when he does.

Mathematics as a science of Logical Reasoning:

Mathematics is the science of precision & accuracy: Mathematics is known as an exact science because of its precision. It is perhaps the only subject which can claim certainty of results. In Mathematics, the results are either right (or) wrong, accepted (or) rejected. There is no midway possible between right and wrong. Mathematics can decide whether (or) not its conclusions are right. Even when there is a new emphasis on approximation, mathematical results can have any degree of accuracy required. It is the teacher's job to help the students in making decisions regarding the degree of accuracy which is most appropriate for a measurement (or) calculation. (vii)Mathematics is the subject of logical sequence: The study of Mathematics begins with few well – known uncomplicated definitions and postulates and proceeds step by step to quite elaborate steps. Mathematics learning always proceeds from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. It is a subject in which the dependence on earlier knowledge is particularly great. Algebra depends on Arithmetic, Calculus depends on Algebra, Dynamic depends on Calculus, Analytical Geometry depends on Algebra and Elementary Geometry and so on. Thus gradation and sequence can be observed among topics in any selected branch of Mathematics. (viii)Mathematics requires the application of rules and concepts to new situations: The study of Mathematics requires the learners to apply the skill acquired to new situations. The students can always verify the validity of mathematical rules and relationships by applying them to novel situations. Concept and principle become more functional and meaningful only when they are related to actual practical applications. Such a practice will make the learning of Mathematics more meaningful and significant.

 

 Class: B.Ed. II Sem

Subject: Pedagogy of Physics    Topic: Meaning of science

Compiled By: Dr. Jyoti Gangrade

Meaning and Definition of Science

Science is defined in several different ways by different individuals.

1. Science is a subject that explains the cause and effect relationship of many incidents

2. Science is a subject that explains various components and the characteristics of nature.

3. Science is both a body of knowledge and the process of acquiring and refining knowledge From the various definitions of science, a comprehensive views "Science as a body of knowledge, a way of investigation and a way of thinking in the pursuit of an understanding of nature.

Nature of Science Science is a dynamic, expanding body of knowledge covering ever new domains of experience. Broadly speaking, it involves several interconnected steps: observation, looking for regularities and patterns, making hypotheses, devising qualitative or mathematical models, deducing their consequences: verification or falsification of theories.

Nature and Scope of Science observations and controlled experiments and thus arriving at the principles, theories and laws governing the physical world. There is no strict order in these various steps. Sometimes, a theory may suggest a new experiment; at other times an experiment may suggest a new theoretical model. Speculation and conjecture also have a place in science, but ultimately, a scientific theory, to be acceptable, must be verified by relevant observations and /or experiments. The laws of science are never viewed as fixed external truths. Even the most established and universal laws of science are always regarded as provisional, subject to modification in the light of new observations, experiments and analysis. The methodology of science and its demarcation from other fields continue to be a matter of philosophical debate. Its professed value neutrality and objectivity have been subject to critical sociological analyses. Moreover, while science is at its best in understanding simple linear systems of nature, its predictive or explanatory power is limited when it comes to dealing with non linear complex systems of nature. Yet, with all its limitations and failings, science is unquestionably the most reliable and powerful knowledge system about the physical world known to humans. But science is ultimately a social endeavor. Science is knowledge and knowledge is power. With power can come wisdom and liberation. Science has the potential to be beneficial or harmful emancipative or oppressive. History, particularly of the twentieth century, is full of examples of this dual role of science. In a progressive forward- looking society, science can play a truly liberating role, helping people out of the vicious circle of poverty, ignorance and superstition. In a democratic political framework, the possible aberrations and misuse of science can be checked by the people themselves. Science, tempered with wisdom, is the surest and the only way to human welfare. This conviction provides the basic rationale for science education.

Scope of Science Science is a way of making sense of the natural world. Scientists seek to describe its complexity, to explain its systems and events, and to find the patterns that allow for predictions. Science is the basis for the design of the technologies that solve real world problems. Not all students will become scientists or engineers. But science and technology occupy ever- expanding places in our everyday lives.

Nature & Scope of Physics

Physics studies matter, energy, force, and their interactions, aiming to understand the universe's fundamental laws from subatomic particles to galaxies, bridging classical (mechanics, optics, heat) and modern (quantum mechanics, relativity) realms, and driving technology by explaining natural phenomena through simple, testable principles. Its scope is vast, covering everything from everyday motion to black holes, using quantitative laws to explain and predict natural occurrences. 

Nature of Physics

• Study of Nature: Physics, from the Greek physis (nature), is the most fundamental science, seeking to understand the universe's workings and natural phenomena.
• Matter, Energy, Force, Time: It focuses on the interactions between energy, matter, space, and time.
• Fundamental Laws: It aims to uncover basic, quantitative laws (like conservation of energy, momentum) that explain diverse phenomena.
• Experimental & Theoretical: It uses observation, experiments, and reasoning to develop and test theories, which are refined or replaced if contradicted by evidence. 

Scope of Physics

Physics is broadly divided into two domains:

• Macroscopic (Classical Physics): Deals with large-scale phenomena.
• Mechanics: Motion, forces (Newton's Laws).
• Thermodynamics: Heat and energy transfer.
• Electromagnetism: Electricity, magnetism, light.
• Optics: Light and vision.
• Microscopic (Modern Physics): Deals with atomic and subatomic scales.
• Quantum Mechanics: Behavior of atoms, molecules, particles.
• Relativity: Space, time, gravity at high speeds (Einstein).
• Nuclear & Particle Physics: Structure of the nucleus, fundamental particles. 

Class: B.Ed. IV Sem

Subject: Educational Technology,      Topic: System Approach

Compiled By: Dr. Jyoti Gangrade

Systems Approach

The input-process-output model of a system also brings out another dimension of the systems approach. It is a way of looking at things, processes or problems. Instead of attacking the problem in an arbitrary manner, the systems approach helps solve the problem systematically. So, the systems approach is a tool to be used for solving educational problems more efficiently and effectively, Systems approach can also be looked upon as a mode of thinking that emphasizes problem identification and problem resolution. It enables an individual to &fine the problem precisely, consider the alternative available and to choose the most efficient alternative (on the basis of the performance criteria) to solve the problem and achieve the goal(s). As systems approach is basically a mess of problem solving, it can be applied to many areas in the field of education, such as instruction, research, management of educational institutions, curriculum development and so on. One may apply it to any problem situation as the process and the mode of thinking remains the same.

Suppose we wish to develop a new course or instructional unit according to the system concept. We should begin with a survey and analysis of subject - matter identifying the skills to be learnt and the characteristics of the learners. The specific objectives, learning outcomes and performance criteria should then be formulated. An inventory of human, technological and financial resources must be made besides considering the limitations or constraints like, time, money, facilities etc. This is the stage at which we are concerned with media along with other materials. No doubt, course construction and software production can begin only after completion of content, method and media strategies. Available materials must be reviewed and examined. When no suitable materials are available, we must prepare a 'package' in the form of good kits. Field testing and validation provide opportunities to try out newly developed instructional packages with a representative sample of students. While a full scale try out is underway, we must observe closely all aspects and note further adjustments that may be needed. Implementation is the final step of putting the validated materials into full scale operation. Continuous feedback should be obtained from the learners at every stage which should lead to a further cycle of updating and modification. The least effective methods are recycled out and better materials are incorporated.

ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEM APPROACH

1.     It provides a conceptual framework on which to build plans for implementing change for education.

2.      It helps to identify the suitability or otherwise of the resource material to achieve the specific goals.

3.     It helps to assess the resources needs, their sources and facilities in relation to quantities, time and other factors

4.     Technology advances could be used to provide integration of machines, media and people for attaining the definite goal.

5.      It permits an orderly introduction of components demonstrated to be required for systems success in terms of student learning.

6.      Rigidity in plan of action is avoided as continuous evaluation affords desired beneficial changes to be made.

 

CONCLUSION

The development and use of a technology in the field of education is viewed in different ways by different people. Some claim it as the basis of a revolution in the educational system aimed at improving the effectiveness and efficiency of education at different levels. On the other hand, some castigate it as a movement aimed at replacing the traditional teacher from the educational scene by sophisticated machines and gadgets. But, in reality the function of an educational technology lies in structuring the environment for learning, by the use of modern methods, techniques, approaches, media etc. In simple words, educational technology is concerned with the development, application and evaluation of systems, techniques and aids to improve the process of human learning. Thus, we can conclude that system approach helps in optimising the effectiveness of use of educational technology. It helps in all the three phases, i.e. designing, implementing and evaluating phases of educational technology. 

SUMMARY

System approach has been introduced in the field of education to manage, control and improve the process and products of education. It acts as a link between hardware and software approach. The system approach to design and analysis of teaching/learning situations is the basis of the great majority of modern educational technology related development. System approach is a rational problem-solving method of analyzing the educational process and making it more effective. The system approach in instruction is an integrated, programmed complex of instructional media, hardware and personnel whose components are structured as a single unit with a schedule of time and sequential phasing. Thus, system approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific objectives. It helps to assess the resources needs, their sources and facilities in relation to quantities, time and other factors In education, this means planned and organised use of all available learning resources to achieve the desirable learning objectives. In the context of education, the system is a unit as a whole incorporating all its components and parts namely, pupils, teachers, curriculum, content, audio visual media and evaluation of instructional objectives. Flow Diagram is a collective term for a diagram representing a flow or set of dynamic relationships in a system. It is used to structure and order a complex system, or to reveal the underlying structure of the elements and their interaction.

Class-sem IV

Subject - Pedagogy of Commerce 

Topic - meaning, Nature and importance of commerce.

Compiled By - Usha saroj

Pedagogy of Commerce involves the methods for teaching commerce, which is the exchange of goods/services, its nature as a system removing barriers (place, time, person) via transport, banking, etc., and its importance in developing vocational skills, economic understanding, and preparing citizens for modern business and life. It teaches about trade (wholesale, retail, export/import), finance, and the skills needed for economic participation. 

Meaning of Commerce

Core Activity: The buying, selling, and distribution of goods and services from producers to consumers, often on a large scale.

Systemic View: Commerce is an entire system involving legal, economic, political, social, and technological aspects that facilitate this exchange.

Enabling Activities: It includes all activities that help move products, like transportation, communication, warehousing, banking, and advertising, which overcome obstacles of distance, time, and ownership. 

Nature of Commerce

Facilitator of Exchange: Its primary role is to remove hindrances (person, place, time) in the distribution of commodities.

Broad Scope: Encompasses trade (wholesale, retail, foreign trade), transport, insurance, banking, and communication.

Dynamic & Evolving: Grows with industry, science, and global economic changes, requiring specialized education.

Practical & Vocational: Provides practical skills and training for business careers. 

Importance of Commerce Education

Vocational Competency: Prepares students for careers in business, trade, and related fields, building practical skills.

Economic Literacy: Helps citizens understand economic activities, financial transactions, and the functioning of the marketplace.

Mental Discipline: Develops analytical and problem-solving skills through understanding complex business concepts.

Societal Contribution: Creates efficient traders, managers, and informed consumers, contributing to a nation's economic stability.

Career Preparation: Opens avenues for specialized studies (M.Com, PhD) and diverse roles in finance, marketing, and management.